Pehnt M., Cames M. Micro Cogeneration: Towards Decentralized Energy Systems

Springer, 2006. — 356 p. — ISBN 10:3-540-25582-6, ISBN 13:978-3-540-25582-6.The introduction of micro CHP – the simultaneous production of heat and power in an individual building based on small energy conversion units such as Stirling and reciprocating engines or fuel cells – is of increasing political and public interest. A large-scale introduction of micro CHP would radically change the electricity system and turn consumers into power producers. At the same time, micro CHP could, if supported by favourable economic and policy conditions, represent a considerable market segment, promoting downstream innovations such as "virtual power plants", altered consumer awareness or new household energy management systems.The diverse consequences of a widespread introduction of micro CHP for the energy market, the customers, the environment and the economy require an interdisciplinary investigation into the real benefits and barriers of micro CHP. This book not only introduces micro CHP systems and technologies, but also presents the results of the first such investigation carried out by four German research bodies. As micro CHP is being developed worldwide, experts from the five most important micro CHP countries – Germany, Great Britain, the Netherlands, Japan, and the United States of America –report on the energy markets, the micro CHP hard- and software, and the respective peculiarities in these countries.This book is an indispensable source of information and analysis for decision makers in local and national authorities, energy companies, utilities, and associations, but also for lecturers and students who want to understand the principles and consequences of decentralized energy supply with Micro CHP systems.Micro Cogeneration Technology.
Defining Micro Cogeneration.
Conversion Technologies.
Reciprocating Engines.
Stirling Engines.
Fuel Cells.
Other Technologies.
Grid Integration, Communication Technology, and Virtual Power Plants.
Summary of Technologies.
Dynamics of Socio-Technical Change: Micro Cogeneration in Energy System Transformation Scenarios.Driving and Embedded: Micro Cogeneration and the Dynamics of Socio-Technical Change.
Pluralism of Prophecies: Scenarios of Transformation in Electricity Systems.
Types of Energy Scenarios.
Forecasting.
Technology Foresight.
Policy Scenarios.
Explorative Scenarios.
Conclusions.
The Future Heating Market and the Potential for Micro Cogeneration.
Current Situation of Micro Cogeneration in Germany.
Demand Drivers in the Heat Market.
The Technical Micro Cogeneration Potential: Scenarios for Germany.
Future Heat Demand in the Residential Sector.
Future Heating Supply in the Residential Sector.
Economics of Micro Cogeneration.
Micro Cogeneration Technologies.
Reference Buildings.
Heat and Electricity Supply Scenarios.
Economic Parameters.
Energy Prices and Subsidies.
4Economic Losses or Benefits for Distribution Network Operators.
Economic Perspectives of Different Operators.
Micro Cogeneration Electricity Generation Costs.
Economic Performance of Micro Cogeneration in Different Buildings.
Independent Operators’ Perspective.
Perspective of Vertically Integrated Utilities.
Societal Perspective.
Conclusions.
Environmental Impacts of Micro Cogeneration.
Life Cycle Assessment of Micro Cogeneration.
Considering the Co-product.
Input Data for Micro Cogeneration Systems, Fuels, and Conventional Power Plants.
Impact Assessment.
Results of the Life Cycle Assessment.
Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction of Natural Gas Micro Cogeneration.
Pollutant Emissions.
Local Impacts from Air Pollutant Releases.
From Gas to Renewables: Other Micro Cogeneration Fuels.
Beyond the Single Micro Cogeneration Unit.
Avoided Grid Losses.
Connecting Micro Cogeneration to Create Virtual Power Plants.
Indirect Ecological Impacts through User Behavior.
Conclusions.
From Consumers to Operators: the Role of Micro Cogeneration Users.
Data and Literature.
Socio-demographic Characteristics.
Attitudes.
Political Attitudes.
Technology Attitudes.
Environmental and Energy Attitudes.
Conclusions on Attitudes.
Motives, Goals, and Interests.
Reasons for Considering Fuel Cell Micro Cogeneration.
Requirements for Home Energy Supply.
Micro Cogeneration Technologies in Comparison.
The Pioneers as Multipliers.
Uncertainty as a Barrier.
Summary and Conclusions: Pioneers for Promoting Micro Cogeneration.
Micro Cogeneration – Setting of an Emerging Market.
A Changing Environment for Micro Cogeneration.
Energy Prices.
The Electricity Market.
The Gas Market.
Tackling High Transaction Costs and Small Margins.
The Actor’s Perspective: Strategy, Motivation and Institutions.
Technology Developers.
Gas Supply Industry.
Large Electricity Companies.
Local Energy Companies.
Customers.
Energy Contracting and Service Companies.
Distribution Network Operators.
Incentives and Disincentives for Micro Cogeneration.
Institutional Framework and Innovation Policy for Micro Cogeneration in Germany.
Institutional Structures.
Liberalization of Electricity Markets and Grid Access.
Energy Taxation.
Combined Heat and Power Law.
European CHP Directive.
Energy-Saving Decree.
Emissions Trading.
Local Air-Emissions Standards.
Institutional Barriers.
Institutional Framework: Discrepancy Between Formal Rules and Actual Effects.
Innovation Policy.
Status of Micro Cogeneration in Policy Strategies.
Research and Development.
Investment Subsidies for Energy Efficiency.
Promotional Networks.
Informational Measures.
Innovation Policy: Overshadowed by Large CHP, Outshone by Fuel Cells.
Embedding Micro Cogeneration in the Energy Supply System.
Challenges to Security of Energy Supply.
Potential Impacts of Micro Cogeneration.
Embedding Micro Cogeneration in the Electricity Network.
Equipment Capacity.
Voltage Variations.
Protection Issues.
Voltage and Current Transients.
Transmission and Distribution Losses.
Ancillary Services and Impacts on Peak Loads.
Perspectives for Using Renewable Fuels.
Conclusions.
The Micro Cogeneration Operator: A Report from Practical Experience.
Starting Situation.
Options of Operating a Micro Cogeneration Unit.
Practical Experiences with the Concrete Operation of Micro Cogeneration.
Practical Experiences with the Regulatory Framework.
Public Acceptance.
Conclusions.
Micro Cogeneration in North America.
Micro Cogeneration Status in North America.
Previous Attempts to Develop Micro Cogeneration.
The Market Today.
U.S. Department of Energy Action.
Framework for Micro Cogeneration.
Heating and Cooling Markets.
Electricity Industry.
Micro Cogeneration Policy and Incentives.
U.S. Department of Energy Micro Cogeneration Policy.
Solid State Energy Conversion Alliance.
U.S. Cogeneration Policy.
Net Metering.
State-level Incentives.
Development of Micro Cogeneration Products in the U.S.
Conclusions.
Micro Cogeneration in Britain.
Political and Economic Framework.
UK Energy Policy.
Implementation of Policy.
Support Measures.
Independent Bodies and Lobbying Activity.
Current Issues.
Legislation and Regulation.
Energy Prices.
Market Context.
Housing Stock and Energy Use.
Climate.
Heating Systems.
Boiler Market.
Technology Developments.
Major Commercial Activities and Actors in the Country.
UK Energy Industry Structure.
Routes to Market.
Market Status.
Micro Cogeneration in Japan.
The Energy Situation of Japan.
Primary Energy Supply and Power Generation.
Electric and Gas Utilities.
Energy Market Deregulation.
The Reciprocating Engine Micro Cogeneration Market in Japan.
Micro Cogeneration for Commercial Use.
Micro Cogeneration for Residential Use.
Development Initiatives.
Prospects for Gas Engine Micro Cogeneration in Japan.
Fuel Cell Development.
Conclusions.
Micro Cogeneration in the Netherlands.Potential.
Micro Cogeneration Developers in the Market.
Micro Cogeneration Developers Trialling.
Other Developers.
Manufacturers.
Gasunie.
Electricity Utilities.
Projects.
Government Actions.
Energy Transition.
Eco Innovation.
Regulations.
Right to Connect.
Fit & Inform.
Meter Changes.
Feed-In Tariff.
Certification.
Expectations.
Summary and Conclusions.
Towards a Decentralized Energy Supply: Summary.
International Experience.
Conclusions.
References, Links, Authors and Abbreviations.Internet Links.
The Authors.
Abbreviations.